Malaysian Applied Biology

Anti-HHV-1 Mechanism and Pharmacokinetic Profile of Bioactive Compounds from Phaleria macrocarpa (Scheff.) Boerl Fruit

2026-05-18T23:20:10+00:00

This study reports on Phaleria macrocarpa fruit protein aqueous extract (PMFPAE) compounds, the mechanistic anti-human herpes virus type-1 (HHV-1) insights, and pharmacokinetic profiles. The mechanistic insight of PMFPAE treatment on the virus UL27 gene expression that encodes the viral attachment glycoprotein, gB, was determined to be downregulated at all replication phases, especially at 8 hr post-treatment, concurring with the late replication phase. Seven main water-soluble compounds in PMFPAE were identified via liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). These include organic acids (D-gluconic acid), xanthones (mangiferin, homomangiferin), and flavonoids (quercetin, myricetin 5-methyl ether, oroxylin A, and apigenin 7-glucuronide-4′-(6′‘-malonylglucoside)). All the compounds have drug-likeness properties according to Lipinski’s Rule of Five except for apigenin 7-glucuronide-4′-(6′‘-malonylglucoside). Except for quercetin and oroxylin A, the compounds have low gastrointestinal absorption, indicating low possibility for oral use. ProTox-II predicted D-Gluconic acid as the least toxic, and quercetin has the highest toxicity. CarcinoPredEL indicated none of the compounds to be carcinogenic. In molecular docking studies, two compounds, homomangiferin and apigenin 7-glucuronide-4’-(6′‘ malonylglucoside), showed strong binding affinity towards virus glycoprotein gB. Five compounds have strong binding towards the virus glycoprotein gD, including mangiferin, myricetin 5-methyl ether, homomangiferin, apigenin 7-glucuronide-4’-(6′‘ malonylglucoside), and quercetin. Homomangiferin can bind to both virus attachment glycoproteins gB and gD, with additional antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. Strong binding affinities of mangiferin and homomangiferin to site I (subdomain IIA) of human serum albumin (HSA) suggest effective compound transport within the bloodstream, enhancing their stability and half-life. In conclusion, PMFPAE consists of multifacet drug-like bioactive compounds that inhibit viral entry by binding to gB and gD and have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory activities. The predicted pharmacokinetic profile suggests that compounds of PMFPAE are more suitable for development as an anti-HHV topical agent due to the limited gastrointestinal absorption, toxicity of several key compounds, and limited binding to HSA.

The Effects of Plant Growth Regulators, Carbohydrate Substrates and Photoperiod on Shoot, Root and Callus Induction from Rhizome Shoot Bud Explants of 'Bentong' Ginger (Zingiber officinale Roscoe)

2026-09-20T04:34:30+00:00

Zingiber officinale Roscoe from Bentong, also known as the ‘Bentong’ ginger, is a premium Malaysian-grown ginger recognised for its distinctive aroma, strong pungency, and elevated levels of 6-gingerol and 6-shogaol. In vitro platforms such as callus and cell suspension cultures represent a promising approach for the production of novel secondary metabolites from this valuable crop. This study aims to assess the effects of plant growth regulators, carbohydrate substrates and photoperiod in the induction of friable callus from rhizome bud explants of Z. officinale Roscoe from Bentong for subsequent studies on the establishment of cell suspension cultures. Explants were subjected to surface sterilisation and cultured in treatments of 2,4-D and kinetin, different carbohydrate substrates and photoperiods. Results in this study indicated that treatment with 2.5 mg/L 2,4-D resulted in 93.33% callus induction and 0.257 ± 0.06 g fresh weight, whereas treatment with 2.0 mg/L kinetin resulted in 85.71% callus formation, with 0.106 ± 0.02 g callus fresh weight. Both treatments of 2,4-D and kinetin produced yellowish white friable callus. The concentration of 30 g/L sucrose was considered the optimal carbohydrate level for callus induction in rhizome bud explants of ‘Bentong’ ginger. Additionally, explants cultured under continuous dark conditions achieved the highest percentage of callus induction (70.0%) with the highest callus fresh weight (0.270 ± 0.07 g). This study successfully induced friable callus from rhizome bud explants of ‘Bentong’ ginger (Z. officinale Roscoe), providing a suitable foundation for subsequent callus and cell suspension culture studies aimed at producing valuable secondary metabolites from this ginger cultivar.

Comparative Analysis of Protease-Assisted Extraction and Three-Phase Partitioning for Protein Recovery from Thai Black Soybean Okara

2026-09-20T04:34:28+00:00

Okara, a by-product of soy-based food production, has gained increasing interest, particularly that derived from black soybean, due to its higher protein and nutrient contents than yellow soybean. However, its utilization remains challenging due to its high perishability. Limited studies have addressed okara bioactive composition, bioactivity, and the environmental impacts of different extraction methods. This study aimed to compare environmentally friendly extraction methods and evaluate their efficiency and functional properties for recovering bioactive proteins from Sukhothai 3 black soybean okara, using protease-assisted extraction (Protease-P6SD & Protease-A2SD) and three-phase partitioning (TPP). Extraction yield, amino acid composition, and antioxidant activity were evaluated. TPP showed a significantly higher extraction yield (26.61 ± 2.24%) than protease-assisted extraction (16.49 ± 0.95% and 15.36 ± 1.63% for Protease-P6SD and Protease-A2SD, respectively) (p<0.05). In contrast, the amino acid composition analysis showed that extracts obtained by protease-assisted extraction contained a broader range of essential amino acids than those obtained by the TPP method. This may be attributed to the higher specificity of proteolytic enzymes toward target proteins compared with chemical extraction methods. Antioxidant assays (DPPH and ABTS) revealed significantly lower IC₅₀values, approximately two-fold lower, in protease-derived extracts compared to TPP (p<0.05), indicating stronger antioxidant activity. These findings demonstrate that a higher extraction yield does not necessarily correspond to superior protein quality. While TPP provides a higher extraction yield, protease-assisted extraction enhances the amino acid profile and bioactivity. Therefore, enzymatic extraction represents a promising green approach for enhancing the utilization of black soybean okara. This study highlights the potential of Sukhothai 3 black soybean okara as a valuable biofunctional ingredient for functional food applications.

Acute Toxicity Effects of Heavy Metals to Juvenile Climbing Perch, Anabas testudineus (Bloch, 1792) Within 96-Hour Exposure

2026-09-20T04:34:27+00:00

This study examines the acute toxicity effects of four heavy metals, arsenic (As), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and zinc (Zn), on juvenile climbing perch, Anabas testudineus, under controlled laboratory conditions. Analytical-grade arsenic acid, cadmium sulfate, Lead(II) chloride, and zinc sulfate were used in preparing standard stock solutions. Fish mortality was recorded at 24-hr intervals over 96 hr. Median lethal concentrations (LC₅₀) and times (LT₅₀) for the juveniles were predicted using cumulative mortality, based on probit analysis run in Microsoft Excel. The water physical parameters, including pH (6.57), temperature (27.1–28.2°C), and dissolved oxygen (6.3–7.2 mg/L), were maintained within optimal ranges, ensuring that fish mortality and behavioural changes were mainly affected by metal toxicity. Arsenic recorded the highest toxicity (LC₅₀= 0.17 ppm), with 100% mortality at 1.0 ppm within 48 hr. Lead (Pb) demonstrated a narrow tolerance range, exhibiting no mortality at concentrations below 1.35 ppm but resulting in rapid 100% mortality at 3.41 ppm (LC₅₀= 2.47 ppm). Cadmium is toxic with sudden, lethal effects at higher concentrations (LC₅₀=2.5 ppm). Zinc became toxic at higher levels (100% mortality at 89 ppm, LC₅₀= 50.35 ppm). The fish toxicity was in the following order: As > Pb > Cd > Zn. An inverse relationship has been detected between LC₅₀values and metal concentration, highlighting the concentration- and time-dependent nature of toxicity. Unusual fish behaviour, including erratic swimming and excessive mucus production, indicated neurophysiological stress responses. This ranking (As > Pb > Cd > Zn) highlights arsenic as the most dangerous contaminant to A. testudineus in aquatic systems.

Bromelain-Enriched Diet Improves Morphology and Spawning Performance in Clarias macrocephalus

2026-09-20T05:24:45+00:00

This study aimed to investigate the effects of a bromelain-supplemented diet on the external morphological and reproductive characteristics of Clarias macrocephalus, and to assess how these changes influence spawning performance. Functional food enzymes are attracting increasing interest in aquaculture due to their potential to improve digestion and physiological performance. Bromelain, a proteolytic enzyme derived from pineapple, was evaluated for its effects on external morphology and reproductive characteristics. The experiment comprised two dietary treatments: a control diet and a bromelain-supplemented diet. External morphology was assessed by examining skin pigmentation, tail curvature, mucus secretion, muscle tone and reproductive traits such as genital papillae development and abdominal distension. External morphologies were scored using a standardised scale of 1–5, and statistical analyses were performed using independent t-tests and chi-square tests. Fish fed the bromelain diet showed significantly greater skin pigmentation (3.65 ± 0.49 vs. 1.15 ± 0.37), increased tail curvature (3.40 ± 0.60 vs. 1.60 ± 0.50), higher mucus secretion (3.80 ± 0.89 vs. 1.50 ± 0.51) and reduced muscle tone (3.40 ± 0.60 vs. 1.25 ± 0.55) compared to the control group (p<0.001). In contrast, reproductive characteristics including genital papilla structure and abdominal distension showed no significant differences (p>0.05), although successful spawning and a high fertilisation rate (87.4 ± 5.2%) were observed in the bromelain-fed pairs. The findings suggest that bromelain supplementation has a marked effect on the external morphology and physiological condition of catfish, which could enhance spawning readiness despite limited visible changes in reproductive anatomy. This indicates that the effects of bromelain have an internal or metabolic potential. The study highlights the potential of bromelain as a feed additive in aquaculture and recommends further research to investigate its effects on reproductive hormones, gonadal histology and synergistic interactions with bioactive compounds to optimise reproductive outcomes in C. macrocephalus culture.

Comparative Impact of Drying Techniques on Physicochemical, Proximate Compositions, and Antioxidant Properties of Roselle Calyces (Hibiscus sabdariffa L.) for Sustainable Agriculture

2026-09-20T05:24:47+00:00

This study evaluated the impact of different drying methods, freeze drying (-120°C), food dehydrator (65°C), and oven drying (65°C) on the quality of roselle calyces to extend their shelf life and availability, considering implications for sustainable agriculture. Key quality parameters assessed included physicochemical properties, proximate composition, and antioxidant activity. Freeze drying produced the highest quality results, closely resembling fresh roselle in several aspects. The colour analysis showed freeze-dried samples had the highest chroma values with L* (35.97), a* (31.86), and b* (17.3), indicating vibrant colour retention. The pH of freeze-dried roselle was the lowest at 2.74, indicating a desirable balance of acidity. In terms of proximate analysis, freeze-dried roselle had the lowest moisture content (7.55%) among dried samples, which is crucial for extended shelf life. It also had the highest ash content (8.06%), protein content (11.06%), and crude fat content (2.51%), highlighting its superior nutrient retention compared to other drying methods. Oven-dried roselle showed higher ash (8.69%) and fat (1.44%) contents but had a lower moisture content (6.36%) than dehydrator-dried roselle, which had the highest moisture content (8.30%) and the lowest ash (5.75%) and protein (5.86%) contents. Antioxidant analysis revealed that freeze drying preserved the highest levels of antioxidant activity (14.22% RSA), total phenolic content (12.3 mg GAE/mL), total flavonoid content (44.9 mg QE/mL), and ascorbic acid content (22.267 mg/100 g). These findings highlight the effectiveness of freeze-drying in maintaining the bioactive compounds and overall nutritional quality, which is crucial for sustainability agriculture practices aimed at preserving crop value and extending product availability.

Effects of Dehydration and Roselle Powder Addition on Physicochemical Characteristics, Antioxidant Properties and Hydroxymethylfurfural Formation in Stingless Bee Honey

2026-08-03T02:48:07+00:00

High moisture in stingless bee honey increases the risk of fermentation, which may adversely affect the quality. This study evaluates the effects of dehydration and roselle powder addition on the physicochemical characteristics, hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) formation, antioxidant properties, and sensory acceptance of stingless bee honey. The study was conducted using a 4 × 2 factorial design. The factors investigated were dehydration treatment (food dehydrator at 55°C for 18 h) and roselle powder addition at four levels (0%, 5%, 10%, & 20%). Physicochemical analyses included moisture content, colour intensity, pH, total soluble solids, hygroscopicity, and HMF content. Total phenolic and flavonoid contents were determined, and antioxidant activity was evaluated using the Ferric Reducing Antioxidant Power (FRAP) assay. Sensory evaluation was conducted with 30 panelists to assess multiple sensory attributes. All data were analysed using two-way ANOVA. Both factors had significant effects on the physicochemical characteristics (p<0.05). HMF content increased significantly following dehydration and roselle powder addition (p<0.05). Antioxidant activity, phenolic and flavonoid contents increased significantly with both dehydration and roselle powder addition (p<0.05). Sensory evaluation revealed that overall acceptance remained at a moderate liking level, with no significant differences (p>0.05) observed among the samples. In conclusion, controlled dehydration combined with roselle powder addition improved the physicochemical properties and antioxidant characteristics of stingless bee honey while maintaining comparable sensory acceptance to the control samples. However, dehydration also increased HMF formation, indicating that further optimisation of the dehydration process is required.

A Laboratory Framework for Evaluating Antimicrobial Activity in Herbal Soaps: A Model System Using Neem and Turmeric Formulations

2026-06-12T04:46:29+00:00

The rising concern of skin infections caused by common microbes like Staphylococcus aureus and Candida albicans exacerbated by increased antimicrobial resistance from overuse of conventional drugs has increased the public’s interest in natural and herbal-based products. While commercial medicated soaps have extensive studies on their antimicrobial activities, existing research on herbal soaps predominantly focuses on plant extracts rather than finished soap formulations, leaving a gap in understanding the true efficacy of herbal-based soaps against clinically relevant pathogens. Additionally, variations in preparation methods and the absence of standardised testing protocols complicate the comparison and validation of results across different studies. The study aims to evaluate the antimicrobial efficacy of herbal-based soaps using standardised laboratory procedures. A broth microdilution assay was conducted, followed by subculture confirmation to determine the minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs), minimum bactericidal (MBC) and fungicidal (MFC) concentrations. Time-kill assay assessed concentration- and time-dependent effects at MBC/MFC levels through serial dilutions and colony-forming units (CFU) enumeration. The MIC and MBC values for Staphylococcus aureus were 53.33 mg/mL and 80 mg/mL, respectively, with time-kill analysis showing bacterial reduction within 30 s and complete elimination by 3 min. Candida albicans exhibited higher MIC and MFC values of 120 mg/mL, with complete inhibition observed at 4 min. Overall, the low MIC values and rapid microbial inhibition highlight the influence of soap concentration and exposure time on its potency. Overall, this investigation not only demonstrated the microbial reduction capability of the herbal soap but also contributed valuable methodological insights. By providing a useful testing framework, it paves the way for ongoing improvements in product formulation and ensures that consistent efficacy standards can be maintained. This contributes to the broader field of natural product development and supports the increasing interest in plant-based antimicrobial agents as safe and effective alternatives to conventional chemicals.

The Therapeutic Potentials of Malaysian Medicinal Plants for Cardiovascular Diseases: A Review

2026-09-20T05:24:49+00:00

Cardiovascular diseases are among the most common diseases around the world with a considerably high rate of mortality. In view of this, multiple approaches have been proposed, especially in exploiting the potential of herbal plants due to their availability, accessibility and medicinal values. This review was conducted based on 16 medicinal herbs available in Malaysia as listed in the Malaysian Herbal Monograph. The aim was to study their effects on the alleviation of cardiovascular diseases, to analyse the relationship between the phytochemical compounds of herbal plants in relation to cardiovascular diseases and to review their underlying mechanism of action. The medicinal plants are organised based on their effects on alleviating cardiovascular diseases either directly or indirectly through reduction of cardiovascular disease risk factors, such as antihyperlipidemic, vasodilatory effects, cardioprotective and anticoagulant effects. Both in vivo and in vitro studies are included in this review to demonstrate the scientific value of related plants in cardiovascular diseases. In conclusion, many studies have identified a diversity of herbal plants in Malaysia to possess cardiovascular-relieving activities. Further studies can be conducted to develop these plants for cardiovascular disease treatment or prevention.